· ***chapter one
Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary
1.  The term word is an elusive notion, which demands careful consideration at the outset.
2.  a  recognized criterion
a few commonly recognized criteria
in addition
to some extent
concerning…

3. This question has occupied the attention of linguistics for ages.
 
 
***What Is a Word
1.  in visual terms       (从视觉的关系上…)
In this line…             (在这一点上…)
As defined in terms of …    (根据…来定义)
… is/are viewed as ….
According to…
In a word, / To sum up,
2. The definition of a word comprises the following points
(1) a minimal free form of a language;
(2) a sound unity;
(3) a unit of meaning;
(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.
A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
3.  to comply with these criteria
polysyllabic words
predicative              (表语)
predictive              (adj. 预言性的; 前兆的)
can be divided as…
can be broken down as…
can be separated into …
can be use as …
can work as…
… can stand alone as …
Similarly,….            ( adv. 同样地, 类似地…)
be opposite to …
…denotes…/means…
To make payment or action in return for concealment of discreditable secrets
***Sound and Meaning
1.      A word is a symbol that stands for something else in the world.
2.      Each of the world’s cultures has come to agree that certain sounds will represent certain persons, things, places, properties, processes and activities outside the language system.
3.      This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”
---Lodwig and Barrett 1973
4.      The relationship in question is conventional.
 
***Sound and Form
1.      It is generally agreed that the written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form.
2.      In other words, the sound should agree with the form.                (adv.换句话说, )
3.  This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English.
be true of …
4. The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today.
5. The internal reason for this is that….           

bsp;    (其内部的因素是…)
Another reason is that….
A third reason is that …
Finally comes +...          (其最后的原因是来自…)
6. Be adopted from …
  To do double duty
  And in some cases the two have drawn far apart
…
has/ have changed considerably.   
                        (adv….有了相当大地改变)
6.      The early scribes who made a living by writing, often worked in haste to meet the needs of the King, Church, and merchants.
short vertical strokes such as i, u, v, m, w and n looks all alike
8. Consequently, …           (从此，因此，)
To solve the problem in part, ….  
                           (为了部分地解决这个问题)
Thus, in time, ….         (从此，渐渐地/最终地，…)
9.In the late 1500, Printing became well established.
William Caxton brought printing machine into British.
10.  Finally comes the borrowing, which is the very important channel of enriching the English vocabulary.
…is very important channel of enriching …
（…是丰富…的最重要的渠道/来源。）
11.  The early borrowings were assimilated and the later ones, however, do not conform to the rules of English pronunciation and spelling, e.g. stimulus(L), denouement(F), fiesta(Sp), eureka(Gr), and kimono(Jap).
… is/are assimilated      (…被同化，被吸收)
… to conform to the rules of …   (遵循…的规则)
12.  From time to time in history, some British and American scholars have made efforts to reform the English spelling, but with little success.
From time to time in history, …have made efforts to reform …, but with little success.
13.  In spite of the differences, …
                       （尽管有这些不同之处….）
14.  …may have more regularity and usefulness than we realize.
(…比我们所认识到的更具有规律性和有效性。)
15.    to appear to be/do     (….似乎…看起来…)
     lt appears to me that...   (据我看来, 我觉得)
16.  when these words are extended into longer ones…..
 be extended to …
***vocabulary
1. The Definition of vocabulary: All the words in a language make up its vocabulary. Vocabulary not only refer to the total number of the words of a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period, e.g. Old English vocabulary, Middle English vocabulary and Moder
n English vocabulary. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.

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