Chapter 3 Word formation( the three major process of word-formation)
1. Explain :
Word-formation rules:
Word-formation rules define the scope and methods whereby speakers of a language may create new words.Rules themselves are not fixed but undergo changes.
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2. Root,stem and base. （词根、词干和词基） Analyze the word denationalized into root,base and stem
1)Root: A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word,and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.
Free root: A root which can stand itself and can be used seperately to form a new word. A word consisting of one free root or one morhpeme is a simple word.e.g., man,talk,red,etc. A free root is a free morpheme.
Bound root: A root which cannot stand itself and cannot be used seperately,but as an attachment to be added to a word to form a new word. such as “tain,ceive”.Bound roots must be used together with other elements to form a word, e.g. “con+tain” = “contain”
2)Stem: A stem refers to the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme (曲折詞素)in a word with inflectional morphemes.e.g. 'worker' in 'workers' is a stem.
3)Base(词基）:A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added;it may also be defined as ''a form to which a rule of word-formation is applied.''This means that any root or stem can be termed a base.Such as,desirable is a base in undesirable.
4) The differences between root,stem,base:
A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word,no further analysis.Such as nation is a root in international.
A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyszed,it sometimes could be a root. e.g. desire is a stem in desired.
A base is a form to which a rule of word-formation is applied,it could be a root or a stem.Such as internation is a base in international.
3. compounding Composition or Compounding (27%) （复合法）
Definition: Compounding consists of combining two or more words into one which now expresses a single idea and functions as a separate lexical unit.Compounding is the most productive word-formation process in contemporary English.
4. what are the relative criteria of a commound?
Orthographic criterion(书写标准) :Compounds are written in three ways,e.g. solid:airmail; hyphenated:air-conditioning; open: air force, air raid.
Phonological criterion(语音标准) :
Semantic criterion(语义标准)
5. Affixation or Derivation (17.5%) （派生法或词缀法）@
It is a process of forming new words by the addition of a word element,such as a prefix,suffix,or combining form,to an already existing word. e.g. :tele- --telephone, telescope
6. What is the difference between prefixation and suffixation?
Prefixation: the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. It does not change the word-class of the stem but change its meaning.
Suffixation --Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Change the grammatical function of stems (the word class). Suffixes can be grouped on a grammatical basis.
7. How are the marjor living prefixes classified?
1)''nagative ''否定prefixes:un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc.
2)''reversative相反or privative否定的前缀''prefixes:un-,de-dis etc.
3)''pejorative变坏的, 轻蔑的''prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc.
4)''degree or size ''prefixes:arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc.
5)''attitude态度''prefixes:co-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.
6)''locative位置格''prefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc.
7)''time and order ''prefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.
8)''number ''prefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc.
8. How can you form deverbal nouns,denominal nouns,deadjective verbs,and denominal adjectives by suffixation?
Deverbal nouns:來自動詞的名詞
a. Denoting people -- -ant （assistant）, -ee (trainee), -ent
(respondent), -er(-or)
b. Denoting action, result, process, state, ect. -- -age (linkage), -al
(dismissal), -ance (attendance), -ation(-ition, -tion, -sion, -ion), -ence
(existence), -ing (savings), -ment
Denominal nouns:來自名詞的名詞
a. Concrete -- -eer
(engineer), -er (teenager), -ess (hostess), -ette (cigarette), -let (booklet)
b. Abstract -- -age (wastage), -dom (处于…状态)(officialdom), -ery
(slavery), -ery (-ry), -hood (childhood), -ing (farming), - ism（…主义） (terrorism), -ship（状态） (sportsmanship)
Deadjective verbs:來自形容詞的動詞
-ity (popularity), -ness (happiness)
Denominal adjectives:來自名字的形容詞
ese (Chinese), -an (Australian), -ist (主义) (socialist)
Denominal suffixes -- -ed (wooded), -ful (successful), -ish (foolish), -less
(priceless), -like (lady-like), -ly (friendly), -y (smoky)
-al(-ial, -ical) (cultural, residential), -esque (picturesque), -ic (economic),
-ous(-eous, -ious) (coutageous)
-ic and –ical can be affixed to the stem in some cases, but differ
in meaning.
Historic (important in history) historical (of history)
Classic (great, memorable) classical (of Latin or Greek)
Comic (of comedy) comical (funny)
Economic (in the economy) economical (money-saving)
Electric (powered by electricity) electrical (of electricity)
Deverbal suffixes -- -able (-ible) (washable), -ive(-ative, -sive) (active,
decisive)
Adverb suffixes -- -ly (calmly), -ward(s) (homewards), -wise (clockwise)
Verb suffixes -- -ate(originate), -en (darken), -(i)fy (beautify), -ize (ise)
(modernize)
9. Conversion or Functional shift (10.5%) （转成法或功能转换法）
It's a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the additon of an affix.
radio n. -- to radio v.
cry v. -- cry n.
10. what is the difference between conversion and suffixation?
Suffixation@: It's the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or a combining form to the base,and usually changing the word-class of the base.e.g. boy n. + -ish -- boyish adj. boy n. + hood -- boyhood n.
11. In a convrsion pair, how can you determine which of the two is the base and which the derived word?
Wirter---a deverbal noun with er suffix
Spy –a deverbal noun without suffix
Derivation by zero suffix
12. Illustrate the axiom,the actural grammatical classification of any word is depent upon its use
i.e. the second round was exciting(n)
any round plate will do (adj)
some drivers round coners too rapidly(v.)
the sound goes round and round
13. why is the conversion from noun to verb the most productive process of conversion?
1. first in contemporary English,there is tendencey of “a preponderance (优势)of nouns over verbs.
2. there are only a few verb-forming affixes in english . they are be-,en-,ify,ize and en is now scarcely productive, while ize is the ohly highly productively one. More over, new verbs formed by other word-formation processes are also very few , except by back-fromation,which is, however , not a very productive word-formation process iteself. We might therefore more and more new verbs to be coined by means of conversion
14. what are the marjor semantic types(语义)under noun to verb conversion
1.to put in/on N: the nouns are usually locative nouns denoting a place ,a contianer or a special location
. the workers canned apples=the workers put apples in cans
2.to give N, to provide N
They sheltered the orphans
认为不太重要, 不想往下写
15. why is “the poor” an example of partial conversion
some adjectives are used as nouns when preceded by the definite article such as the poor,the wounded:yet these conveted nouns take only some of the features of noun, i.e. they do not take plural(复数) and genitive（所有格）inflections, nor can they be preceded by determiners like a , this ,my .such adjective—noun conversion is partical
Chapter 3
Morphological structure of English words
Objectives: Discuss morphemes, their classification and identification;Explain
the relationship between morphemes and word-formation
Teaching focus:
Definition of morphemes
Definition of allomorphs
Types of Types of morphemes
free morpheme
bound morpheme
Definitions of root, stem and base
On the morphemic level, Word, according to the number and type of morpheme they, can be classified into the below item
a. the simple words: those consisting of a single morpheme,such as man, work, kind
b.
derived words: those which
are the result of a derivational process, such words usually consist of a free
morpheme and one(or more than one)bound morpheme, such as fruitless,fruitful,
unfruitful, fruitfulness,
c.
compound wors: those which are
composed of two or more free morpheme, e.g: deep structure,
specesuit,forget-me-not,maid-of-all-work,and jack of all trades.
1. Morpheme
What is a morpheme
It is the minimal meaningful unit of English
language, possesses both sound and meaning. Or it is the smallest
functioning unit in the composition of words.
语素是最小的有意义的单位.它是语言中最小的构词单位
2. Morph and allomorph
The definition of morphs:
The phonetic or orthographic strings or segments which realize morphemes are
termed 'morphs'.
语素的语音或拼写法的体现叫形素.
Morphs are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.
形素是口语中最小的意义载体.
What is an allomorph
An allomorph is one of the variants of the same morpheme.
语素/形位变体是同一个语素的不同形式.
For example
When the plural marker {s} is added to cat, dog, and horse, it is pronounced
differently as /-s, -z,
-iz/ and thus has three phonological forms; the three forms are just the
variants of the same morpheme {s}, i.e. the allomorphs of morpheme {s}.
3. Classifications of morphemes
Free vs. bound morphemes in terms of their capacity of occurring alone
Derivational vs. inflectional morphemes
applying to affixes only
Content / lexical vs. grammatical morpheme on a semantic and syntactic basis
Free vs. bound morphemes
自由语素与粘着语素
Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. Free morphemes
have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units
in sentences.
自由语素是能独立运用的语素,它有完整的意义,在句中充当一个自由的语法单位.
E.g., man, wind, open, tour
Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are bound to
other morphemes to form words or to perform a particular grammatical function.
粘着语素不能独立成词,只能依附于其他语素上以构成词或担当一定的语法功能.
Free morphemes are all roots /free roots, which are capable of being used as
words or as word-building elements to form new words.
自由语素都是词根, 也叫自由词根, 能用作词或作为构成新词的构词要素.
Bound morphemes consist of either roots (bound roots) or affixes.
粘着语素包括词根(粘着词根)和词缀.
E.g., bound root: -dict-, -ced-
affix: -ion, -ist, -ic
A multitude of words made up of merely bound morphemes, eg:
-ced- 是词根,'接近',
ante- 是前缀,'在…前',
-ent 是后缀,'人,物',
Derivational vs. inflectional morphemes
派生语素与屈折语素
What are derivational and inflectional morphemes
Derivational morphemes are used to derive new words when they are added to
another morpheme. In English derivatives and compounds are all formed by such
morphemes.
派生语素附着于其它语素可派生出新词.英语中派生词和合成词都是由这样的语素构成的.
Inflectional morphemes indicate the syntactic relationships between words and
function as grammatical markers. Inflectional morphemes are confined to
suffixes.
屈折语素作为语法标记表示词的语法意义,屈折语素只限于词缀.
What's the difference between them
Inflectional
Doesn't change meaning or part of speech of the stem. (work—works)
Indicates syntactic relations between different words in a sentence. (
grammatical meaning)
Occurs with all members of some large class of morphemes.
Occurs at margins of words. (radio—radios)
Derivational
Changes meaning or part of speech of the stem.( like--dislike, sleep—asleep)
Indicates semantic relations within the word.
(specific lexical meaning,e.g., un-)
Occurs with only some members of a class of morphemes
Occurs before any inflectional suffixes added.
Content / lexical vs. grammatical morphemes
Lexical 词汇/ content实义 morphemes are morphemes used for the construction of new words as
in compound words (blackbird is coined on the basis of 2 lexical morphemes:
black and bird.), and derivational morphemes such as –ship, -ize.
Grammatical morphemes function primarily as grammatical markers. They encompass
both inflectional affixes(-books) and free morphemes ( in, and, do, have, they…functional
words)
3.4 Identifying Morphemes
How to identify morphemes
They should be identifiable by their forms, meaning and distribution.
e.g.,
mono-morphemic: sky
double-morphemic: chill + y, boy + ish
triple-morphemic: un+dress+ed, care+less+ness
four-morphemic: un+fruit+ful+ness
over-four-morphemic: un+gentle+man+li+ness
In what situation do morphemes mismatch between form and meaning
1) Inconsistent in form and meaning:
singer ( one who)
er clearer ( the comparative degree)
eraser (one object)
2) Meaningless in isolation but meaningful in some words
cran-
huckle- berry
boysen-
3) Difficult to define the meaning
-ceive in conceive/perceive/receive
3.5 Morpheme and Word-formation
In word-formation, morphemes are labeled root, stem, base and affix.
在构词法中, 语素被分为词根,词干,词基和词缀.
Affix
Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning
or function. All affixes are bound morphemes.
词缀都是粘着语素,依附在词根上构成新词或表示词的语法意义.
Two types of affixes:
Inflectional affixes and Derivational affixes
屈折词缀和派生词缀
Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes) serve to indicate the
syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers. 表示词的语法意义的是屈折词缀.
They express the following meanings:
Plurality名词复数
The genitive case
名词所有格
The comparative and superlative degrees
形容词/副词比较级,最高级
The verbal endings
动词词尾变化
e.g. -s in chairs, pens;
-es in boxes, tomatoes;
-en in oxen
e.g. 's in boy's,
children's
e.g. -er in words like smaller; -est in words like smallest.
a. -(e)s in words like eats, teaches shows the third person singular present
tense.
b. -ing in words like eating, shows the present participle or gerund.
c. -(e)d in words like worked shows the past tense or past participle.
Derivational affixes or derivational morphemes
They can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.
(1) Prefixes are affixes before the root.
e.g., unjust, rewrite.
As a rule, most prefixes modify the meaning of roots, but not their parts of
speech.
(2) Suffixes are affixes after the root
By the addition of the suffix, the word is usually changed from one part of
speech into another, e.g. liberation, modernize.
Root, stem, base
词根,词干,词基
A root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and
derivational affixes have been removed.
词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分.
A stem is that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional
affixes have been removed.
词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分.
A base refers to a form to which affixes of any kind (both derivational and
inflectional) can be added. It can be a root or a stem.
词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式.
词根,词干,词基
词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分.
词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分.
词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式.它与词根有区别,因为它是可以从派生角度进行分析的形式,在上面可以加上派生词缀.但是词根则不容许做进一步的分析.词基与词干也是不同的,因为派生词缀和屈折词缀都可以加在词基上,而只有屈折词缀可以加在词干上.
Task: Analyse the word in terms of root, stem and base.
e.g., (root/base) (derivational suffix)
desire able
(derivational prefix) ( base)
un desirable (a.)
(stem/base) (inflectional suffix)
undesirable (n.) s (root/stem/base) (inflectional suffix)
desire (v.) d
1. desire (v.): 是词根(不可再分解),是词干(可以加屈折词缀,如过去时态 -ed),是词基.
2. desirable (adj.): 不是词根(可再分解);不是词干(不可以加屈折词缀),是词基(既可以加词缀,又能再分解下去).
3. undesirable (n.): 不是词根(可再分解);是词干(可以加屈折词缀,如名词复数 -s),也是词基.
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