Chapter 7  Sense relations between words

 Words may be classified according to the relation between their sense. The two majoy types of sense relation between words are synonymy and antonymy

Synonymy (同义关系) --similarity:It refers to the words which have nearly the same denotative meaning(外延意义) are synonyms,and the relationship between them is one of synonymy. 

A synonym refers to one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning

1.     comment on the traditional definition of synonyms,what’s your definition for

 synonyms?

syn-together

noyma-name

Synonyms are traditionally defined as word differing in sound form but identical or similar in meaning

  What is your definition for synonyms?

    Similarity

2.  Types of synonyms:Complete or absolute synonyms,Relative synonyms

What do we mean by complete synonyms?

Absolute (Complete) Synonyms--are words, which are fullly identical in meaning(which are fullly identical in meaning and interchangeable in all contexts are Complete Synonyms) in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings. Absolute (Complete) Synonyms are restricted to high-specialized vocabulary.
For instance, composition / compounding. They have the perfect same meaning in Lexicology.

3.      What do we mean by relative synonyms?

are similar or nearly the same in denotation but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality, different in affective meaning and stylistic meaning. (relative synonyms are may differ in shades of meaning, in emotional colouring, in level of formality, in collocation, and in distribution) 

e.g. Change/alter/vary
Take stagger/reel/totter for example.
Stagger implies unsteady movement characterized by a loss of balance and failure to maintain a fixed course. E.g. stagger under a heavy load;
Reel suggests a swaying or lurching so as to appear on the verge of falling. E.g. The drunken man reeled down the hall;
Totter indicates the uncertain, faltering steps of a feeble old person or of an infant learning to walk.

4.      in what respects do synonymous words differ?

a)             In degree of a given quality or in shade of meaning

Anger(生气), rage(愤怒), fury(狂怒),indignation（愤概）

b)             In affective情感 meaning, and stylistic文体meaning

Afftective(emotive):a number of english words have affective meaning as an integral part of their word meaning

e.g  little and small are synonyms, but if any emotion is associated with the designation , we must choose little

stylistic meaning: there are many words which refer to the same thing but belong to different stylistic layer :neutral(common),colloquial（口语）,literary(文学),slang(俚语),vulgar,scientific and technical, and so on . e.g. man(neutral)    guy(slang)   fellow(colloquial)

c)             In collocation 搭配 and distribution分配

A good number of synonyms are used in different collocations, but sometimes they may be used in the same ones

e.g pretty girl, pretty child, pretty flower,pretty colour

    handsome boy, handsome man, handsome car

 

5.      Antonymy(反义关系)—It is used for “oppositeness of meaning”,words that are opposite are antonyms

6.      types of antonyms

Antonyms may be classified on the basis of basis of semantic 语义contrast  and morphological 形态 structure 

7.      types of semantic contrast:

Antonyms classified on the basis of semantic contrast, semantically antonyms fall into three types: contraries, complementaries and conversives

8.      what is meant by contraries相对性反意词,

contraries display a type of semantic contrast, illustrated by such pairs as rich and poor, heavy and light, deep and shallow, they are all gradability.

9.      what is meant by complementaries or contradictories? 互补反意词

complementaries or contradictories represent a type of binary(二元) semantic opposition. In a complementary pair the contrast between the two term is absolute

alive—dead, single-married, present and absent, male and female, perfect and imperfect

10.  what is meant by conversives换位反意词 or related opposite ?

another important type of binary opposition is called conversives or relational opposites, E.g lend and borrow, husband and wife , employer and employee, above and below

11.  types of Morphological structure

Antonyms classified on the basis of Morphological structure: traditionally many linguists have adhered to a classification of root antonyms and derivational 派生的 antonyms based on morphology(形态学的). Words like deep-shallow, to live-to hate, up-down, are root antonyms, for they are words with different roots. derivational antonyms are words with same roots having negative affixes, such as happy-unhappy, conformist-nonconformist,possible-impossible, loyal-disloyal, prewar-postwar, code-decode, harm-harmful  

12.  some relevant points about antonyms

a)             marked and unmarked members

tiger(unmarked)---tigress(marked)

so, the unmarked member is used much more widely than merely as a contrast with the mark one, which is more specific in denotation

b)             some words without antonyms, like house, window, forest, book, coal, drink.

c)             different antonyms under different circumstances(环境)

an old man—an young man

an old house-a modern/new house

a thin slice—a thick slice

a thin man—a fat man

a tall building---a low building

a tall man---a short man

fast  a,fixed firmly----loose or insecure

      b,rapid------slow or leisurely or sluggish

      c,steadfast, loyal(a fast friend)-----disloyal

      d, dissipated or pleasure seeking(fast society)----- temperate,sober,

moderate,quiet,modest

fresh bread—stale bread, 

fresh air—stuffy air, 

fresh flowers—faded flowers

d)             lexical antonymy(语汇反意) and syntactic negation（句法否定）

impossible—not possible

unfair---not fair

disloyal---not loyal

to disobey—not to obey

word order of antonymous pairs, some phrases contain pairs of antonyms and we must pay attention to the word order of the antonymous in such phrase

译法的顺序同中国一致

heaven and earth 天地

man and wife 夫妻

cause and effect因果

come and go来去

far and near远近

black and white黑白

thichk and thin厚薄

译法的顺序同中国不一样

fire and water水火

heat and cold寒暑

eat and drink饮食

right and left左右

rich and poor贫富

old and new新旧

heavy and light轻重

sooner and later迟早

13.  Hyponymy上下义关系， Hyponymy’ is the relationship which obtains between specific and general lexical items, such that the former is “included” the latter

A cat is a hyponymy of animal,chair of furniture

14.  Semantic field(语义场): ,semantic field theory”took the view that the vocabulary of a given lanuage is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organised into areas, or fields, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways (semantic field theory

is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as a system of interrelated lexical networks.the words of a semantic field are joined together by a common concept, and they are likely to have a number of collocation in common)

e.g  the words red, green, blue,white, gray, orange, rose,olive,purple may be said to make up the semantic field of colours

the words father , mother, son , daughter, brother , sister make up the field of kinship

words in the same semantic field are likely to have a number of collocation in common, for instance, pork, beef, mutton belong to the same semantic field, they collocate readily with the  following words: stew, fry, roast, tasty, overdone, raw, underdone.

 

neutral[5nju:trEl]n.中立者, 中立国, 非彩色, 齿轮的空档,adj.中立的, 中立国的, 中性的, 无确定性质的, (颜色等)不确定的

derogatory[di5rC^EtEri]adj.贬损的

appreciative[E5pri:FjEtiv]a欣赏的, 有欣赏力的, 表示感激的, 承认有价值的

frugal[5fru:^El]adj.节俭的, 朴素的

miserly[5maizEli]adj.吝啬的, 贪婪的

notorious[nEu5tC:riEs]adj.声名狼籍的

extravagant[iks5trAvE^Ent]adj.奢侈的, 浪费的, 过分的, 放纵的

generous[5dVenErEs]adj.慷慨的, 大方的, 有雅量的

obstinate[5Cbstinit]adj.倔强的, 顽固的

resolute[5rezElju:t]adj.坚决的

inactive[in5Aktiv]adj.无行动的, 不活动的, 停止的, 怠惰的adj.非活动的

gaudy[5^C:di]adj.华而不实的

snobbery[5snCbEri]n.势利

rashness   n.轻率, 不瞻前顾后

advertise[5AdvEtaIz]v.做广告, 登广告

boast[bEust]n.自夸, 值得夸耀的事物v.自夸, 以有...而自豪

brag[brA^]n.v.吹牛

formality[fC:5mAliti]n.拘谨, 礼节, 仪式, 正式手续, 拘泥形式

associate[E5sEuFieit]

vt.使发生联系, 使联合

vi.交往, 结交

n.合作人, 同事

adj.副的

retire [简明英汉词典][ri5taiE]vi.退休, 引退, 退却, 撤退, 就寝

pal [pAl]n.<口>好朋友, 伙伴, 同志vi.结为朋友

mate [meit]n.配偶, 对手, 助手vt.使配对, 使一致, 结伴vi.成配偶, 紧密配合

mad [mAd]adj.疯狂的, 愚蠢的, 狂欢的, 非常激动的, 狂热的, 着迷的n.狂怒

buddy [5bQdi]n.<美口>密友, 伙伴

nuts [nQts]adj.热衷的, 发狂的int.呸, 胡说

crazy [5kreizi]adj.疯狂的, 狂热的, (指建筑等)不安全的

bonkers [5bCNkEz]adj.疯狂的, 精神不正常的

 

Here are some words with similar meanings, write them into the boxes according to their level of formality:

Formal:  associate    retire

Neutrai: friend, companion, mad, go to bed

Informal and not formal: pal(n.<口>好朋友), mate(n.配偶, 对手, 助手), buddy(n.<美口>密友, 伙伴) nuts(adj.热衷的, 发狂的int.呸, 胡说), crazy(adj.疯狂的, 狂热的)

Slang: bonkers (adj.疯狂的, 精神不正常的), hit the sack

 

refuse[ri5fju:z]vt.拒绝, 谢绝n.废物, 垃圾

reject[ri5dVekt]n.被拒之人, 被弃之物, 不合格品, 落选者, 不及格者vt.拒绝, 抵制, 否决, 呕出, 驳回, 丢弃

decline[di5klain]vi.下倾, 下降, 下垂v.拒绝, 衰落n.下倾, 下降, 下垂, 斜面, 斜坡, 衰败, 衰落  decline with thanks谢绝

rage[reidV]n.愤怒, 情绪激动, 狂暴, 精神错乱vi.大怒, 狂吹, 风行

anger[5AN^E]n.怒, 愤怒v.恼火

fury[5fjuEri]n.狂怒, 狂暴, 激烈, 狂怒的人

indignation[7indi^5neiFEn]n.愤慨, 义愤

troop[tru:p]n.群, 组, 多数, 军队vi.群集, 结队, 成群而行vt.把(骑兵)编成骑兵连

pack[pAk]n.包裹, <贬>一群, 一副, 背包, 包装vt.包装, 捆扎, 塞满, 压紧, 挑选vi.

包装货物, 挤, 群集, 被包装, 背包

swarm[swC:m]n.蜂群, 一大群v.涌往, 挤满, 密集, 成群浮游, 云集

flock[flCk]n.羊群, (禽、畜等的)群, 大量, 众多v.聚结

herd[hE:d]n.兽群, 牧群v.把...赶在一起放牧, 成群

shoal[FEul]n.浅滩, 沙洲, 鱼群, 大量adj.水浅的v.(使)变浅, 驶入(浅水等), (鱼等)群集

complexion[kEm5plekFEn]n.面色, 肤色, 情况, 局面

careworn[5keEwC:n]adj.受忧虑折磨的, 疲倦的, 饱经忧患的

countenance[5kauntinEns]n.面容, 脸色, 支持vt.支持, 赞助

overwork[5EuvE5wE:k]n.过度操劳, 过度工作v.(使)工作过度

emphatic[im5fAtik]adj.语势强的, 用力的, 显着的, 断然的

counterpart[5kauntEpB:t]n.副本, 极相似的人或物, 配对物

interjection[7intE5dVekFEn]n.感叹词, 插入之语词

overtone[5EuvEtEun]n.[音]泛音, 暗示, 折光的色彩

lame[leim]adj.跛足的, 僵痛的, 不完全的, 金属薄片, 不知内情的人, (辩解、论据等)无说服力的vi.变跛, 瘸行vt.使成残废

nimble[5nimbl]adj.敏捷的

average[5AvEridV]n.平均, 平均水平, 平均数, 海损adj.一般的, 通常的, 平均的vt.

平均为, 均分, 使平衡, 达到平均水平vi.买进, 卖出

peculiar[pi5kju:ljE]adj.奇特的, 罕见的, 特殊的n.特有财产, 特权

a troop of monkeys 猴

a pack of wolves狼

a swarm of bees

a flock of birds

a herd of cattle 牛

a shoal of fish

fair---dark

empty---fukk

faint---loud

low—high

gloomy---bright

sad—joyful/cheerful

bright—dark

rough—soft/gentl

domesticadj.家庭的, 国内的, 与人共处的, 驯服的-----wild wild  adj.野性的, 野生的, 野蛮的, 狂热的, 疯狂的

dull adj.感觉或理解迟钝的, 无趣的, 呆滞的, 阴暗的vt.使迟钝, 使阴暗, 缓和vi.变迟钝, 减少----interesting or amusing-----clever

contradict[kCntrE5dikt]vt.同...矛盾, 同...抵触

scarce  adj.缺乏的, 不足的, 稀有的, 不充足的—plentiful

forward—backward

below—above

over –under

hard—soft

hard—easy

seldom—often

deep—shallow

peculiar—common/average

light—dark/heavy

decline—accept/rise

occupation n. 职业, 占有, 占有(房屋等)期间

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